Biorefinery of Oil Producing Plants for Value-Added Products

Biorefinery of Oil Producing Plants for Value-Added Products

Abd-Aziz, Suraini; Ibrahim, Mohamad Faizal; Gozan, Misri; Phang, Lai-Yee

Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH

01/2022

784

Dura

Inglês

9783527348763

15 a 20 dias

1768

Volume 1

Preface xvii

About the Editors xix

1 A Glance On Oil Producing Plants, Pretreatment and Bioenergy Production Using Oil Producing Plant 1
Suraini Abd-Aziz and Misri Gozan

References 9

Part I Availability of Oil Producing Plants 11

2 Demand and Sustainability of Palm Oil Plantation 13
Suraini Abd-Aziz, Misri Gozan, Mohamad Faizal Ibrahim, and Lai-Yee Phang

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Production and Consumption of Global Palm Oil Industry 14

2.3 Major Hindrances in Sustainability Considerations 17

2.3.1 Environmental Issues 18

2.3.2 Socioeconomic Issues 19

2.4 Future Sustainability Implications of the World Largest Palm Oil Producers 20

2.4.1 Indonesia 21

2.4.2 Malaysia 22

2.5 Sustainable Versus Unsustainable Palm Oil Toward Carbon Neutral Emissions 23

2.6 Conclusions 24

References 25

3 Planting and Harvesting Jatropha 29
Penjit Srinophakun, Anna Saimaneerat, and Vipa Hongtrakul

3.1 Introduction 29

3.2 KUBP 78-9 and KUBP 202 Varieties 30

3.2.1 Plant Spacing 31

3.2.2 Plantation Layout and Data Collection 31

3.2.3 Fertilizer Application 33

3.2.4 Cutting Management 35

3.2.5 Weed Control 35

3.2.6 Insect, Pest, and Disease Control 37

3.3 Jatropha Performance 38

3.3.1 Plant Height and Canopy Width 38

3.3.2 First Flowering Day 40

3.3.3 Rainfall 41

3.3.4 Harvesting 43

3.3.5 Seed Yield and Weight of 100-Seed 45

3.4 Conclusions 47

Acknowledgments 47

References 47

4 Castor Oil (Ricinus communis) 51
Is Fatimah, Suresh Sagadevan, Baranya Murugan, and Oki Muraza

4.1 Source and Cultivation of the Castor Plant 51

4.2 Castor Oil Production 54

4.2.1 Cultivating and Harvesting Ricinus communis 54

4.2.2 Extraction of Castor Oil 57

4.2.3 Refining of Castor Oil 59

4.2.4 Standardization of Castor Oil 60

4.3 Castor Oil Products 60

4.3.1 Hydrogenated Castor Oil 60

4.3.2 Biodiesel from Castor Oil 61

4.3.3 Polymer from Castor Oil 67

4.3.4 Plasticizer from Castor Oil 67

4.3.5 Biolubricant from Castor Oil 69

4.3.6 Pharmaceutical Solvent from Castor Oil 72

4.4 Conclusions 73

References 73

5 Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum) Oil 79
Nurul Sabrena Hanafi, Misri Gozan, and Suraini Abd-Aziz

5.1 Introduction 79

5.2 Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum) 80

5.2.1 Characteristic of Nyamplung Seed Oil 81

5.2.2 Extraction of Nyamplung Seed Oil 82

5.2.2.1 Mechanical Extraction 83

5.2.2.2 Solvent Oil Extraction (Chemical Extraction) 83

5.2.3 Applications of Nyamplung Seed Oil 83

5.2.3.1 Medicinal Purposes 84

5.2.3.2 Cosmetic Ingredient 84

5.2.3.3 Biodiesel 85

5.3 Potential of Nyamplung Seed Oil as Biolubricant 86

5.3.1 Reactions Involved in Biolubricants Manufacturing 86

5.3.1.1 Transesterification 86

5.3.1.2 Epoxidation 87

5.3.2 Emerging Area of Biolubricant Industries Using Alternative Oil/Seed Oil 88

5.3.2.1 Applications of Biolubricant 89

5.3.2.2 Chemical Modification of Biolubricant 89

5.4 Conclusions 91

References 92

6 Coconut Oil 99
Muhammad A. Darmawan, Kiman Siregar, and Misri Gozan

6.1 Introduction 99

6.2 Extraction Process of Coconut Oil 100

6.2.1 Dry Extraction Process 100

6.2.1.1 Coconut Testa Oil 102

6.2.1.2 Copra Oil 102

6.2.2 Coconut Refining Process 102

6.2.2.1 Chemical Refining Process 102

6.2.2.2 Physical Refining Process 103

6.2.3 Wet Extraction Process 103

6.2.3.1 Heat and Cold Extraction of Virgin Coconut Oil 103

6.2.3.2 Fermentation and Enzymatic Process of Virgin Coconut Oil 104

6.3 Physicochemical and Chemical Compositions of Coconut Oil 105

6.4 The Properties of Coconut Fruit 108

6.5 Health Benefits of Virgin Coconut Oil 111

6.5.1 Virgin Coconut Oil Effects on Artery Disease 111

6.5.2 Antioxidant Activity of Virgin Coconut Oil 111

6.5.3 Antidiabetic Activity of Virgin Coconut Oil 112

6.5.4 Antimicrobial Activity of Virgin Coconut Oil 112

6.6 Coconut Oil as Fuel 112

6.7 Coconut Oil as Cooking Oil 113

6.8 Productivity and Problems in Coconut Plantation 114

6.8.1 Productivity of Coconut Plantation in Indonesia 114

6.8.2 Problems of Coconut Plantation and Industry in Indonesia 115

6.9 Conclusions 116

References 116

Part II Pretreatment 123

7 Efficient Physical and Chemical Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 125
Liping Tan, Jian Zhao, and Yinbo Qu

7.1 Introduction 125

7.2 Type of Physical and Chemical Pretreatment 126

7.2.1 Bisulfite Pretreatment 126

7.2.2 Formiline Pretreatment 128

7.2.3 Hydrothermal Pretreatment 128

7.2.4 Deep Eutectic Solvents (DES) Pretreatment 129

7.2.5 Comparison of Physical and Chemical Pretreatment Methods 130

7.2.6 Combinations of Physical and Chemical Pretreatment 133

7.3 Conclusions 135

Acknowledgment 135

References 135

8 Ionic Solution Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 141
Chien-Yuan Su, Wei-Chun Hung, Chiung-Fang Liu, Bo-Jhih Lin, and Hou-Peng Wan

8.1 Overview of Biomass Hydrolysis 141

8.1.1 Acid Hydrolysis 143

8.1.2 Ionic Liquid Hydrolysis 144

8.1.2.1 Development and Principle of Ionic Liquid Hydrolysis 144

8.1.2.2 Ionic Solution Hydrolysis 145

8.2 Case Study of Ionic Solution Hydrolysis 147

8.2.1 Feedstock Analysis and Dissolution Efficiency 147

8.2.2 Sugar Yields from Various Biomass via Ionic Solution Hydrolysis 150

8.2.3 Purification of Hydrolysis Products 151

8.2.3.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 151

8.2.3.2 Reactive Distillation 151

8.2.3.3 Ion Exclusion Chromatography and Membrane Filtration 153

8.2.4 Comparison of Hydrolysis Pretreatment Technologies and Summary 155

Acknowledgment 157

References 157

9 Biological Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 161
Sehanat Prasongsuk, Wichanee Bankeeree, Pongtharin Lotrakul, Suraini Abd-Aziz, and Hunsa Punnapayak

9.1 Introduction 161

9.2 Microorganisms and Enzymes Involved in Biological Pretreatment 162

9.2.1 Fungal Pretreatment 164

9.2.2 Enzymatic Pretreatment 165

9.3 Factors Affecting Biological Pretreatment 168

9.3.1 Cultivation Condition 168

9.3.2 Incubation Time 168

9.3.3 Moisture Content 168

9.3.4 pH and Temperature 168

9.4 Biological Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass into Value-Added Products 169

9.4.1 Bioconversion into Fermentable Sugar for Bioethanol Production 169

9.4.2 Biogas Production 171

9.5 Conclusions 172

Acknowledgment 173

References 173

10 Lignin-Degrading Enzymes 179
Adriana C. Lee, Mohamad Faizal Ibrahim, and Suraini Abd-Aziz

10.1 Introduction 179

10.2 Lignin Types and Structures 180

10.3 Lignin-Degrading Enzymes (LDEs) 181

10.3.1 Lignin Peroxidase or Ligninase (LiP) 181

10.3.2 Manganese Peroxidase (MnP) 183

10.3.3 Versatile Peroxidase (VP) 185

10.3.4 Dye-Decolorizing Peroxidases (DyPs) 185

10.3.5 Laccase 186

10.3.6 New Enzymatic Delignification Activities 189

10.3.6.1 ?-Etherases (Glutathione-Dependent Lignin-Degrading Enzyme) 189

10.3.6.2 Biphenyl-Binding Enzyme Cleavage Systems 190

10.3.6.3 Enzyme O-Demethylation Networks 190

10.3.6.4 Activities of General Oxidative 190

10.4 Application of LDE in Biorefinery Pretreatment 191

10.5 Conclusions 194

References 194

11 Enzymes for Hemicellulose Degradation 199
Wichanee Bankeeree, Sehanat Prasongsuk, Pongtharin Lotrakul, Suraini Abd-Aziz, and Hunsa Punnapayak

11.1 Introduction 199

11.2 Hemicellulolytic Enzymes 200

11.3 Xylanolytic Enzyme Classification 201

11.4 Catalytic Mechanisms 204

11.5 Sources and Properties of Xylanolytic Enzymes 205

11.5.1 Bacterial Xylanolytic Enzymes 205

11.5.2 Fungal Xylanolytic Enzymes 207

11.6 Potential Biotechnological Applications 209

11.6.1 Biorefinery 209

11.6.2 Pulp and Paper Industry 211

11.6.3 Biotransformation 212

11.7 Conclusions 213

Acknowledgment 214

References 214

12 Cellulase from Oil Palm Biomass 221
Jeong Eun Hyeon and Sung Ok Han

12.1 Biological Pretreatment and Cellulase 221

12.2 Cellulases 222

12.2.1 Endoglucanase (1,4-D-glucan-4-glucanohydrolase; EC 3.2.1.4) 223

12.2.2 Exocellobiohydrolase (1,4-D-glucan glucohydrolase; EC 3.2.1.74) 224

12.2.3 ?-Glucosidase (D-glucoside glucohydrolase; EC 3.2.1.21) 225

12.3 Synergistic Effect by Combination of Various Cellulases 226

12.3.1 Cellulosome 226

12.3.2 Artificial Cellulosome 229

12.4 Industrial Strain for Cellulases Production 230

12.4.1 Cellulases Production by Fungal Cellulase System 230

12.4.2 Cellulases Production by Bacterial Cellulase Systems 232

12.5 Conclusions 233

Acknowledgment 233

References 234

Part III Generation of Bioenergy 239

13 Biogas Generation in the Palm Oil Mill 241
Muhammad Y. Arya, Muhammad A. Kholiq, Udin Hasanudin, and Misri Gozan

13.1 Introduction 241

13.2 POME Characterization 243

13.3 POME Pretreatment 243

13.3.1 Acidified POME 246

13.3.2 Ash Addition 246

13.3.3 Coagulation-Flocculation 248

13.3.4 De-oiling 248

13.3.5 Dissolved Air Flotation 249

13.3.6 POME Sedimentation 249

13.3.7 Thermal Pretreatment 249

13.3.8 Other Pretreatments 249

13.4 Digester Type 250

13.4.1 Anaerobic Pond/Lagoon 250

13.4.2 Anaerobic Filtration 251

13.4.3 Fluidized Bed Reactor 253

13.4.4 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) 253

13.4.5 Anaerobic Baffled Reactor 253

13.5 Operating Conditions 253

13.5.1 Substrate Characterization 253

13.5.2 pH and Alkalinity 254

13.5.3 Organic Loading Rate (OLR) and Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) 254

13.5.4 Temperature 255

13.5.5 Other Operating Conditions 256

13.6 Biogas Purification 257

13.7 Conclusions 257

References 258

14 Biodiesel Refinery from Jatropha 265
Penjit Srinophakun, Anusith Thanapimmetha, and Maythee Saisriyoot

14.1 Introduction 265

14.2 Jatropha Biodiesel 265

14.2.1 Biodiesel Standard 273

14.2.2 Oxidation Stability 273

14.2.3 The Changes of Biodiesel Properties During Long-Term Storage 278

14.3 Conclusions 281

Acknowledgment 282

References 283

15 Bioethanol from Oil Producing Plants 287
Yu-Shen Cheng, Kittipong Rattanaporn, and Malinee Sriariyanun

15.1 Introduction 287

15.2 Plant Components Derived from Oil Producing Plants as the Biomass Resources 290

15.2.1 Oil Producing Plants 290

15.2.2 Oil Meals/Cakes Derived from Oilseed as Lignocellulosic Biomass 291

15.2.3 Other Lignocellulosic Residues Derived from Oil Plants 293

15.3 Conversion of Oil Plant-Derived Lignocellulosic Biomass to Bioethanol 294

15.3.1 Structure of Lignocellulosic Biomass Derived from Oil Plants 294

15.3.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Pretreatment and Enzymatic Hydrolyses 296

15.3.3 Bioethanol Production from Oil Producing Plant 299

15.4 Conclusions 300

References 300

16 Biobutanol Production from Oil Palm Biomass 307
Mohamad Faizal Ibrahim, Nor A. Shaharuddin, Nurul H. Alias, Mohd A. Jenol, Suraini Abd-Aziz, and Lai-Yee Phang

16.1 Introduction 307

16.2 Oil Palm Biomass 308

16.3 Biobutanol 310

16.4 Biobutanol Production 312

16.4.1 Biobutanol-Producing Bacteria 312

16.4.1.1 Clostridium sp. 312

16.4.1.2 Lactobacillus 314

16.4.1.3 Escherichia coli 315

16.4.2 Factors Affecting Biobutanol Production 315

16.4.2.1 Effect of Nitrogen Source 315

16.4.2.2 Effect of pH 315

16.4.2.3 Effect of Temperature 316

16.4.2.4 Effect of Carbon Source 316

16.5 Biobutanol Production from Oil Palm Biomass 317

16.6 Conclusions 320

References 321

17 Biochar from Oil Palm Biomass 325
Z. Nahrul Hayawin and Juferi Idris

17.1 Introduction 325

17.2 Oil Palm Biomass in Malaysia 326

17.3 Oil Palm Biochar Production 326

17.3.1 Mechanistic Aspects of Pyrolysis 326

17.3.2 Pyrolysis Process Parameters Affecting the Quality and Quantity of Biochar Production 327

17.3.3 Technologies for Biochar Production 329

17.3.3.1 Conventional Pyrolysis 329

17.3.3.2 Microwave Pyrolysis 329

17.3.4 Application of Biochar 331

17.3.4.1 Environmental Remediation 331

17.3.4.2 Agricultural Application 331

17.3.4.3 Energy Purposes 332

17.4 Safety and Environmental Considerations 333

17.4.1 Safety Consideration and Environmental Impacts in the Application of Biochar 333

17.4.2 Safety Consideration and Environmental Impact in Handling and Storing Oil palm Biomass Feedstock 334

17.4.3 Safety Consideration and Environmental Impacts in Biochar Production by Pyrolysis Process 334

17.5 Biochar Utilization and Marketing 335

17.5.1 Quality of Biochar 335

17.5.2 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Biochar 335

17.5.3 Adsorption Capacity 336

17.5.4 Economic Analysis 336

17.5.5 Major Challenges in Promoting Biochar 337

17.5.5.1 Cost and Production Complications 337

17.5.5.2 Environmental Factors 338

17.5.5.3 Public Acceptance 338

17.5.5.4 Marketability and Commercialization Issues 339

17.6 Conclusions 339

References 339

18 Fuel Pellet from Oil Producing Plants 345
Rizal Alamsyah

18.1 Introduction 345

18.2 Production of Fuel Pellet 347

18.2.1 Energy and Proximate Analysis 347

18.2.2 Size Reduction and Screening 348

18.2.3 Drying and Weighing 348

18.2.4 Mixing 349

18.2.5 Pelletizing 349

18.2.6 Cooling and Packing 349

18.3 Pellet Quality 350

18.3.1 Ash Content 350

18.3.2 Ash Melting Temperature 351

18.3.3 Length, Diameter, and Bulk Density 351

18.3.4 Dust 352

18.3.5 Caloric Value and Moisture Content 352

18.3.6 Mechanical Durability 352

18.3.7 Nitrogen, Sulfur, Chlorine Content, and Heavy Metals 353

18.4 Pilot Plant-Scale Biomass Pellet Experiment 353

18.5 Gasification of Biomass Pellets to Produce Synthetic Gas (Syngas) and Emission Test 356

18.5.1 Gasification 356

18.5.2 Emissions Test 357

18.6 Biomass Pellet Processing Equipment 359

18.6.1 Chaff Cutter 359

18.6.2 Hammer Mill 361

18.6.3 Cyclone Dust Collector 361

18.6.4 Paddle Mixer 362

18.6.5 Pellet Machine (Pelletizer) 362

18.6.6 Cooler 363

18.6.7 Packing Machine (Bagging Scale) 364

18.7 Conclusions 364

References 364

19 Biohydrogen from Palm Oil Mill Effluent 369
Safa Senan Mahmod, Peer Mohamed Abdul, and Jamaliah Md. Jahim

19.1 Introduction 369

19.2 Biohydrogen-Producing Bacteria 371

19.3 Strategies to Increase Biohydrogen Production from POME 374

19.3.1 Operating Conditions Optimization: Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Temperature on Biohydrogen Production 374

19.3.1.1 Effect of Temperature 374

19.3.1.2 Effect of Different Hydraulic Retention Times (HRTs) 376

19.3.2 Microbial Cells Immobilization 378

19.3.3 Roles of Additives 380

19.4 Conclusions 383

19.5 Acknowledgments 383

References 383

Volume 2

Preface xiii

About the Editors xv

20 A Glance on the Generation of Biobased Chemicals, Bioproducts and Economic Analysis of Oil Producing Plant 387
Misri Gozan and Suraini Abd-Aziz

Part IV Generation of Biobased Chemicals 397

21 Bio-oil from Tobacco Plant 399
Andre F.P. Harahap, Ahmad Fauzantoro, and Misri Gozan

22 Biosurfactant from Oil Producing Plant 421
Zaharah Ibrahim, Siti Halimah Hasmoni, Shafinaz Shahir, Lai-Yee Phang, Nurashikin Ihsan, and Madihah Md Salleh

23 Palm Catanionic Surfactant for Drug Delivery Application 445
Wen Huei Lim, Xiou Shuang Yong, Lai-Yee Phang, and Noorjahan Banu Alitheen

24 Glycerol and Derivatives 469
Erliza Hambali, Rista Fitria, and Vonny I. Sari

25 Biovanillin from Oil Palm Biomass 493
Suraini Abd-Aziz, Mohd Azwan Jenol, and Illy Kamaliah Ramle

26 Diacids from Oil Producing Plant 515
Is Fatimah, Ganjar Fadillah, Oki Muraza, and Teuku M.I. Mahlia

27 Bioplastic Production from Oil Producing Plants 543
Lai-Yee Phang, Mitra Mohammadi, Mohd Azwan Jenol, and Misri Gozan

28 Plant Oil-Based Polyurethane 563
K. H. Badri and Amamer Redhwan

29 Bioresins from Oil Producing Plants 587
Misri Gozan, Agustino Zulys, and Hosta Ardhyananta

Part V Generation of Other Bioproducts 605

30 Biocompost from Oil Producing Plants 607
Adibah Yahya, Nurshafika Abd Khalid, and Madihah Md Salleh

31 Animal Feed from Oil Producing Plants 631
Siswa Setyahadi

32 Amino Acids from Oil Producing Plants 653
Huszalina Hussin, Nurul S. Hanafi, Adriana C. Lee, Madihah Md Salleh, Shu-Cuen Sam, and Suraini Abd-Aziz

Part VI Economics Analysis of Oil Producing Plants 673

33 Technical and Economic Aspects of Oil Producing Plants 675
Misri Gozan and Lai-Yee Phang

34 Economic Impact 699
Nugroho A. Sasongko and Rachmawan Budiarto

Index 723
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Biowissenschaften; Botanik / Biotechnologie